These applications or protocols are almost always implemented in software.

End-users interact with the application layer.

The application layer is where most end-user applications such as web browsing and email live.

The application layer is where an outgoing message starts its journey so it provides data for the layer below.

🔎 Did You Know? Ascribing to the OSI model, Layer 8 is a pseudo-layer that consists of the end-users! A lot of IT support humor has involved telling unsuspecting non-tech-savvy users that the issue is a “Layer 8 issue.” So the application layer can technically be said to be sitting in between layers 8 and 6!